By Prof. Lefteris Kaliambos (Λ. Καλιαμπός) Τ.E. Institute of Larissa Greece
July 19 , 2015
Unfortunately under the discovery of the assumed uncharged neutron (1932) theoretical physicists abandoned the well-established electromagnetic laws in favor of wrong nuclear theories and models which cannot lead to the nuclear force and nuclear structure. Despite the enormous success of the Bohr model (1913) and the Schrodinger equation in three dimensions (1926) based on the well-established laws of electromagnetism neither was able to reveal the simplest structures of deuteron and helium. For example the great physicists Heisenberg (1932) and Yukawa (1935) under the invalid relativity and the wrong assumptions of the uncharged neutron developed invalid theories of the so-called strong interaction, which cannot lead to the correct nuclear structures. On the other hand in the absence of the fundamental charge-charge interaction of natural laws in order to interpret the very strong attractive nuclear force at very short distances of about 1.5/1015 m the nuclear physicists hypothesized incorrectly that an unknown attractive force in the systems proton-neutron, proton-proton and neutron-neutron occurs under the so- called Charge Independence Hypothesis. Later the experiments showed that in protons and neutrons exist charge distributions able to give forces of fundamental charge-charge interactions. ( See my "NUCLEAR STRUCTURE IS GOVERNED BY THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETISM"). Nevertheless under the influence of the invalid relativity which led to the wrong nuclear theories and models many physicists today continue to believe incorrectly that the wrong theory of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) is a fundamental theory of "color forces" governing the nuclear phenomena.
Indeed after the development of the theory of the charged quarks (1964) Gell-Mann in 1973 under the false theories of relativity (1905) and of Yukawa mesons (1935) did not use the well-established charge-charge interaction of the discovered charged quarks but he tried to interpret the wrong strong interaction by developing his theory of quantum chromodynamics. Note that he postulated the strange “color forces” between hypothetical massless gluons which cannot exist in accordance with my DISCOVERY OF PHOTON MASS . Under this physics crisis I analyzed carefully the magnetic moments of nucleons and I discovered 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron able to give the simplest nuclear structure of the deuterium by reviving the well-established laws of electromagnetism. (See my DISCOVERY OF QUARKS IN PROTON AND NEUTRON ).
DISCOVERY OF 9 CHARGED QUARKS IN PROTON AND 12 ONES IN NEUTRON EXISTING AMONG 288 QUARKS IN NUCLEONS
Although in my published paper of 2003 I discovered 9 charges quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron, able to give the nuclear structure by applying the electromagnetic laws, today many physicists influenced by the invalid relativity and the various contradicting nuclear theories based on the WRONG STANDARD MODEL continue to believe that the proton is composed of 3 quarks with fallacious gluons which cannot lead to the proton and neutron structure. For example in the “Proton-WIKIPEDIA” one reads the following wrong ideas:
“In the modern Standard Model of particle physics, the proton is a hadron, and like the neutron, the other nucleon (particle present in atomic nuclei), is composed of three quarks. Prior to that model becoming a consensus in the physics community, the proton was considered a fundamental particle. In the modern view, a proton is composed of three valence quarks: two up quarks and one down quark. The rest masses of the quarks are thought to contribute only about 1% of the proton's mass. The remainder of the proton mass is due to the kinetic energy of the quarks and to the energy of the gluon fields that bind the quarks together.”
Also in the "Neutron-WIKIPEDIA" one reads:
"The neutron is classified as a hadron, since it is composed of quarks, and as a baryon, since it is composed of three quarks. The finite size of the neutron and its magnetic moment indicate the neutron is a composite, rather than elementary, particle. The neutron consists of two down quarks with charge −⅓ e and one up quark with charge +⅔ e, although this simple model belies the complexities of the Standard Model for nuclei. The masses of the three quarks sum to only about 12 MeV/c2, whereas the neutron's mass is about 940 MeV/c2, for example. Like the proton, the quarks of the neutron are held together by the strong force, mediated by gluons. The nuclear force results from secondary effects of the more fundamental strong force."
Under this physics crisis in my published paper of 2003 I describe my discovery of the 9 charged quarks in proton and 12 ones in neutron because the fallacious gluons of the quantum chromodynamics lead to complications.
Since the two up quarks of the WRONG STANDARD MODEL lead to complications, let us analyze carefully the following experimental relation of the proton having mass M in case in which it spins like a spinning disk.
μ/S = 2.79278(e/M)
Note that according to the deep inelastic scattering the negative charge (-q ) of the proton should be limited at the center. Then we see that a uniform charge distribution of the two up quarks of the wrong Standard Model cannot justify the above relation. Thus we may assume that the positive charge +Q = 2u exists along the periphery. Also in this case the charge distribution of +Q = 2(2e/3) = +4e/3 cannot justify the above relation. Under these difficulties one may assume that the integer number n =2 of real charged quarks is greater than the number 2 given by the theory of quantum Chromodynamics. That is, n > 2 where n = 3, 4.... Under this condition
+Q = nu = n(2e/3)
According to the electromagnetic laws the magnetic moment μ of a disk spinning with a frequency ν and having the positive charge +Q = n(2e/3) along the periphery, is given by
μ = + Qν πR2 = n(2e/3)νπR2
where R is the radius of the disk.
Whereas the spin S of the disk with mass M is given by
S = 0.5 MωR2 = 0.5M(2πν)R2
In other words the above experimental relation can be written as
μ/ S= [n(2e/3) νπR2] / [ 0.5M(2πν)R2] = 2.79218(e/M)
But in this relation the n cannot be an integer number when the proton behaves like a spinning disk.
In a simple discussion the picture of the proton could be as a rather oblate spheroid associated with the spin having a factor t characterizing the shape between a spinning sphere and a a spinning disk. Since a spinning sphere of radius R and mass M is given by
S = 0.4Mω R2
we can say that 0.5 > t > 0.4.
Under such a condition we found that n = 4. Then the above experimental relation can be written as
μ/S =[4(2e/3)νπR2] / [tM(2πν)R2] = 2.79218(e/M) or 8/6t = 2.79218
and solving for t one gets t = 0.477
In other words according to the experiments and the applications of natural laws we see that the proton is an oblate spheroid which has 4 up quarks (4u) with +Q = +8e/3 existing along the periphery . Since +Q - q = +1e one concludes also that a negative charge -q = -5e/3 exists at the center in accordance with the deep inelastic scattering experiments.
On the other hand to describe the structure of the neutron under the invalid (udd) scheme with fallacious gluons one leads to the same complications. So taking into account the symmetry properties of nucleons, that the current distributions with neutron and proton are quite similar a structure of neutron analogous to proton is obtained by assuming that a negative charge - Q = -8e/3 = 8d is along the periphery , while the positive charge +Q = +8e/3 = 4u is limited at the center. Hence for a neutron radius R equal to the proton radius R the current of -Q with an angular velocity ω generates μ as
μ = (8e/3)(ω/2)R2
Whereas for a neutron mass M equal to a proton mass M the spin S of neutron may be given by
S = tMωR2
Then comparing the above equations we get the experimental value
μ/S = -1.91315(e/M)
when t = 0.69693.
That is 1 > t > 0.5 characterizing a shape between a ring and a disk. This value is not surprising for an oblate spheroid of neutron, since the mass of 8d quarks existing along the periphery is much greater than the mass of 4u existing at the center of the spinning neutron. For example the mass of the charged 8d qyuarks along the periphery is about thee times greater than the mass of the 4u quarks limited at the center. Note that these charge distributions of protons and neutrons satisfy the conservation of charge in the beta decay. That is
neutron( 8e/3 - 8e/3) = proton(8e/3 - 5e/3) + (-e)
while the simple quark model of three quarks in proton or neutron leads to complications and suffers from deficiencies . Moreover the applications of electromagnetic laws by using the simple quark model cannot give the experimental value of the nuclear force, while such charged quarks at the size of protons and neutrons give the experimental binding energy E = -2.2246 MeV of the deuteron. Note that this binding energy of electromagnetic forces rejects Einstein’s fallacious theories of relativity because the binding energy turns into the energy of the generated photon and the so- called mass defect turns into the mass of the generated photon in accordance with the conservation laws of energy and mass. In the same way in the Bohr model the binding energy of -13.6 eV turns into the energy of the generated photon and the so-called mass defect turns into the mass of the generated photon. (See my PHOTON-MATTER INTERACTION ).
It is of interest to note that the stability of proton is due to the structure of proton having 93 neutral quarktriads (dud) and extra charged quarks like 4u with 5d , while the free neutron is unstable because it has 92 neutral quark triads (dud) and extra charged quarks like 4u with 8d. Moreover such extra quark led to the discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons. So, the structure of protons and neutrons is given by
PROTON = [93(dud) + 4u +5d ] = 288 quarks NEUTRON = [92(dud) + 8d + 4u] = 288 quarks
After a careful analysis we found the masses of down (d) and of up quark (u) as
d = 3.69348645 MeV/c2 and u = 2.40016645 MeV/c2
which give not only the mass of neutron,
Mn = 939.565378 MeV/c2
and the mass of proton.
Mp = 938.272046 MeV/c2
but also the difference Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2 which is exactly equal to d - u. That is,
d - u = 3.69348645 - 2.40016645 = 1.293332 MeV/c2 .
However in "Down quark- WIKIPEDIA" and in "Up quark-WIKIPEDIA" one can see the confusing values as
d = ( 4.1 - 5.7) = 4.9 MeV/c2 or a so-called precise value d = 4.79 MeV/c2 .
u = (1.7 - 3.1) = 2.4 MeV/c2 or a so-called precise value u = 2.01 MeV/c2.
Of course these values are wrong because the difference d - u = 4.79 - 2.01 = 2.78 MeV/c2 is greater than the correct value Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2.