By Prof. L. Kaliambos (Natural Philosopher in New Energy)
August 7 , 2015
In 1964, Gell-Mann and Zweig (independently of each other) proposed the quark model, then consisting only of up, down, and strange quarks. However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the quark model). The up quark (u) is the lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a major constituent of matter. It, along with the down quark, forms the proton and the neutron. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of +2e/3 . Like all quarks, the up quark is an elementary fermion with spin S = 1⁄2.
The down quark (d) is the second-lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a major constituent of matter. Together with the up quark, it forms the neutrons and protons of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of -e/3 . Like all quarks, the down quark is an elementary fermion with spin S = 1⁄2. Also the peripheral velocity of spinning quarks is greater than the speed of light and under this condition the magnetic forces are stronger than the electric forces which contribute to the very strong QUARK-QUARK INTERACTION. Note that such electromagnetic interactions of natural laws invalidate the theory of relativity (EXPERIMENTS REJECT RELATIVITY) which led to the wrong theory of the quantum chromodynamics (1973).(Invalid quantum chromodynamics).
Nevertheless the discovery of charged quarks is responsible for revealing the charge distributions in nucleons able to give the strong electromagnetic interaction for the correct nuclear structure. Historically, in 1964 Gell-Mann after a taxonomy of particles suggested that both protons (p) and neutrons (n) consist of (uud) quarks and (dud) quarks respectively having fractional charges as
u = +2e/3 and d = -e/3. That is, uud = +e and dud = 0.
Of course such structures imply small charge distributions as
proton = (+Q = +4e/3, -q = -e/3) and neutron = (+Q = +2e/3, -Q = -2e/3)
which cannot lead to the nuclear structure. Actually, if we apply the fundamental charge-charge interaction of the well-established laws of electromagnetism on such small charge distributions, it would be impossible for us to get the simplest p-n structure of deuterium (D).
Meanwhile in 1933, Stern measured the magnetic moment of the proton to be 2.79 μN and in 1940 F. Bloch measured the neutron magnetic moment to be -1.91 μN. Such results deviate significantly from the predictions of Dirac’s theory and invalidate both Yukawa’s model and the simple quark model because a careful analysis of them provides considerable charge distributions due to a large number of quarks able to give the nuclear binding and structure by applying the well-established and fundamental laws of charge-charge interactions involving forces acting at a distance. In my paper of 2003 " Nuclear structure is governed by the fundamental laws of electromagnetism" ( presented also at the 12th Symposium of the Hellenic Nuclear Physics Society ) I describe the charge distributions of protons and neutrons respectively by a careful analysis of the magnetic moments of nucleons and the deep inelastic scattering experiments. For example for the proton (p) the magnetic moment μ is given by
μ/S = 2.793(e /M)
where S is the spin of proton, e the net charge of proton and M the mass of proton. Here we see that the above experimental relation cannot be consistent with the simple quark model with the scheme (uud) even in case in which the charge +Q = +4e/3 = 2u is along the periphery and the charge -q = -e/3 = 1d is in the center (deep inelastic scattering experiment). Clearly applying the electromagnetic laws for μ, and the laws of a rotating oblate spheroid (like the proton) we may write for μ and for the spin S (angular momentum) respectively as
μ = i πR2 = (Qν) πR2 and S = t MωR2 = tM(2πν)R2
where t is a factor between a rotating sphere [S = (0.4)MωR2] and a disc [S = (0.5) MωR2]. That is 0.4 < t < 0.5. Therefore μ /S = Q/2t = (2.793)e. That is, for t = 0.47742 (oblate spheroid) we get for the proton along the periphery +Q = +8e/3 = 4u and in the center -q = -5e/3 = 5d. In the same way for the neutron we get - Q = -8e/3 = 8d along the periphery, and +Q = +8e/3 = 4u in the center. Surprisingly applications of electromagnetic laws on such experimental charge distributions which give for proton extra (4u,5d) charged quarks and for the neutron extra (8d,4u) charged quarks lead exactly to the simplest nuclear binding (-2.2246 MeV) of the deuterium. Moreover such extra charged quarks led to the discovery of 288 quarks in nucleons. As a result the proton has 93 (dud) neutral quark triads. Among them there are 4u charged quarks distributed along the periphery and 5d charged quarks limited in the center. Whereas the neutron has 92 (dud) neutral quark triads and among them are distributed 8d charged quarks along the periphery and 4u charged quarks limited in the center So, the new structure of protons and neutrons is given by
PROTON = [93(dud) + 4u +5d ] = 288 quarks = mass of 1836.15 electrons
NEUTRON = [92(dud) + 8d + 4u] = 288 quarks = mass of 1838.68 electrons
After a careful analysis I found the masses of down quark (Md) and of up quark (Mu) as
Md = 3.69348645 MeV/c2 = mass of 7.23 electrons and Mu = 2.40016645 MeV/c/2 = mass of 4.7 electrons
They give the total masses of nucleons as
Mass of neutron Mn = 939.565378 MeV/c2 = mass of 1838.68 electrons
Mass of proton Mp = 938.272046 MeV/c2 = mass of 1836.15 electrons
Then the difference Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2 = mass of 2.53 electrons is exactly equal to Md-Mu. That is, Md - Mu = 7.23- 4.70 = mass of 2.53 electrons. For example n-p = d-u given by the following equation:
n - p = [92(dud) + 8d + 4u] - [93(dud) + 4u +5d ] = 3d -(dud) = d-u = mass of 2.53 electrons.
It is of interest to note that in detail the mass of the UP QUARK is exactly equal of the mass of 4.69764 electrons, while the mass of the DOWN QUARK is equal to the mass of 7.22764 electrons. So under this condition we can write:
PROTON = [ 93(19.15292) + 36.1382 + 18.79056 ] = mass of 1836.15 electrons
NEUTRON =[92(19.15292) + 18.79056 + 57.82112 ] = mass of 1838.68 electrons
Note that according to my discovery of the law of energy and mass given by
Δw/Δm = ΔΕ/ΔΜ = c2
the increase of the electron energy ΔΕ = 1.293 MeV and the increase of the electron mass ΔΜ = mass of 2.53 electrons of the one emitting electron in the beta decay are due not to the relative motion of the emitting electron with respect to a fallacious ether or to an observer of special relativity but to the real absorption of the released energy Δw = 1.293 MeV and the mass defect Δm = mass of 2.53 electrons. (Experiments reject relativity). Moreover using these masses of the up and down quarks in the antineutrino (ν-) absorption and emission we get exactly the two conservation laws of energy and mass, while the masses of up and down quarks as given by the WIKIPEDIA lead to complications.
ANTINEUTRINO ABSORPTION AND EMISSION
Here the antineutrino (ν- ) behaves like a neutron because it has negative charge along the periphery and positive one at the center. ( See my "neutrino nature dyscovery") So it interacts electromagnetically with the up quark (u) having a positive charge (+2e/3) like a photon which as an electric dipole interacting with the charge (-e) of an electron in the photoelectric effect under a weak electromagnetic interaction. Therefore the antineutrino-quark interaction invalidates the so-called Electroweak Theory. In this case the absorption of the antineutrino by the proton gives a neutron and a positron under the two conservation laws of mass and energy as
ν- + p = n + e+
or ν- + [93(dud) + 4u + 5d] = [ (92(dud) + 4u + 8d ] + e+
or ν- + (dud) = 3d + e+
or ν- + u = d + e+
According to the experiments the antineutrino in this case is an energetic particle with a mass equal to 1.8 MeV/c2. Since the mass of the positron is equal to 0.51 MeV/c2 and using my discovered values of the up and down quarks we can write the conservation law of mass in terms of MeV/c2 as
1.8 + 2.4 = 3.69 + 0.51
In the same way we can write the conservation law of mass in the antineutrino emission as
n = p + e- + ν-
or [(92(dud) + 4u + 8d ] = [93(dud) + 4u + 5d] + e- + ν-
or d = u + e- + ν-
Since here the mass of the emitting energetic antineutrino is equal to 0.78 MeV/c2 we can write the conservation law of mass in terms of MeV/c2 as
3.69 = 2.4 + 0.51 + 0.78
However in "Down quark- WIKIPEDIA” and in "Up quark-WIKIPEDIA" one can see that the above conservation law leads to complications, because we observe the following confusing values as
Md = ( 4.1 - 5.7) = 4.9 MeV/c2 or a so-called precise value Md = 4.79 MeV/c2.
Mu = (1.7 - 3.1) = 2.4 MeV/c2 or a so-called precise value Mu = 2.01 MeV/c2.
Of course these values are wrong because the difference Md - Mu = 4.79 - 2.01 = 2.78 MeV/c2 is greater than the correct value Mn - Mp = 1.293332 MeV/c2.